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torsdag den 21. november 2019

Kan viden om hajer hjælpe med at forklare ME- og EHS-sygdomsmekanismen?

Der må findes en biologisk forklaring på, hvorfor nogle ME patienter udvikler elektromagnetisk hypersensitivitet (EHS) mod selv ekstremt lave felter. Måske kan viden om hajer hjælpe os på sporet.

Hajer er de mest "el-følsomme" dyr i verden. De kan mærke felter med så lav en værdi som 5 nV/cm. Det elektriske felt bliver opfanget af sensorer, der kaldes ampullae of Lorenzini. Hajerne anvender deres sensorer til at mærke de svage elektriske felter fra deres byttedyr. Det er observeret, at hajer kan gå til angreb på telegraf-kabler på havets bund, fordi de fejlagtigt opfattes som byttedyr (1, 2).

Ampullae of Lorenzini indeholder keratansulfat, som er en proton (H+) conductor (en elektrisk leder). Det betyder, at protonerne (H+) kan blive transporteret langs med keratansulfat molekylekæder, som er omgivet af vand (H2O). H+ vandrer langs rækken af hydrogenbindinger mellem (H2O og hydrofile enheder (se figur 1 i reference 3). Hver ampul indeholder et lag af celler, der kan opfange de elektriske signaler. Mellem cellerne er der tætte samlinger, således at der ikke kan forekomme lækstrøm mellem cellerne (2, 3).


Fig 1 from reference 3. The keratan sulfate.
(A) Chemical structure of KS. (B) An illustration of a three-monomer segment of KS. Possible intra- and inter-molecular hydrogen bonds as well as the hydrogen bonds between the water of hydration and the polar parts of the molecule form a continuous network comprised by hydrogen-bond chains. The sulfate group interacts with the hydrogen-bond network and forms an H3O+ (hydronium) ion. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0202713.g001

Protonerne (H+) i vandige opløsninger bindes til H2O og eksisterer således som H3O+. Protonerne (H+) eksisterer kun under 1% af tiden, hvor de overføres fra et vandmolekyle til et andet. En grundig beskrivelse af fænomenet findes i DeCourseys review, reference 4.


Bemærk at artiklen om keratansultat i hajer hedder (3):
Proton conductivity of glycosaminoglycans

Glycosaminglycaner  (GAGs) er lange kæder af polysakkarider.  Der findes fem typer GAGs (5):

  • heparan sulfate
  • chondroitin sulphate
  • dermatan sulphate
  • keratan sulphate
  • hyaluronic acid
Dvs der er flere typer GAGs med proton conductivity (kan lede protoner). Herudover kan også kollagen være leder for protoner (3).

Vores extracellulære matrix (ECM) er fyldt med GAGs. 

Mellem alveolar epithelium og kapillær endothelium findes et tyndt lag ECM med GAGs og kollagen (5). På jævnt dansk: I et tyndt lag mellem det fine lungevæv og de små fine blodkar findes ECM (figur 2 i reference 5).

Dette lag har stor betydning for udveksling af ilt, kuldioxid og protoner (figur 24 i reference 4, 5). Og det har betydning for immunforsvar, lungesygdomme og astma (5).

Et nærliggende spørgsmål er om det også kan have betydning for iltoptagelse ved motion? Eller betydning for multiple chemical sensitivity (MCS)?

Og kan en dysregulering af GAGs og/eller lækstrøm i utætheder forårsage EHS?


YOU TUBE:

INTERVIEW EXTRA: Ampullae of Lorenzini


How Do Sharks and Rays Use Electricity to Find Hidden Prey?



Referencer:
1) Electroreception https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electroreception

2) Ampullae of Lorenzini

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ampullae_of_Lorenzini


3) Selberg, Manping, Rolandi (2019): Proton conductivity of glycosaminoglycans. Plos One Published: March 8, 2019
https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0202713

4) DeCoursey TE. Voltage-gated proton channels and other proton transfer pathways (vol 83, pg 475, 2003). Physiological Reviews. 2003 Jul;83(3):1067–.
https://www.physiology.org/doi/full/10.1152/physrev.00028.2002

5) Souza-Fernandes AB1, Pelosi P, Rocco PR
Bench-to-bedside review: the role of glycosaminoglycans in respiratory disease. Crit Care. 2006;10(6):237.
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17118216

.

tirsdag den 12. november 2019

Photoimmunology and the ME IDO metabolic trap

The sun emits ultraviolet radiation (UVR) with different wavelengths:

  • UVA (320 - 400 nm)
  • UVB (280 - 320 nm)
  • UVC (< 280 nm)


UVR can cause sunburn and increase the risk of skin cancer. UVR is also immunomodulatory and can be beneficial in the case of inflammatory and autoimmune diseases, but UVR can also exacerbate some autoimmune diseases (1, 2).

Chromophores are the parts of a photorecpetor that absorb photons in light (1).

UVB radiation can be absorped by cytosolic tryptophan, which thus function as a chromophore. This results in the formation of tryptophan photoproducts in particular 6-formylindolo[3,2-b]carbazole (FICZ). FICZ binds to aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR) and activates downstream signalling pathways, which contribute to UVR-induced immunosupression (1).

An external file that holds a picture, illustration, etc.
Object name is 41598_2019_46374_Fig1_HTML.jpg
Figur 1 from reference 3. Light dependent synthesis of FICZ. 6-Formylindolo[3,2-b]carbazole (FICZ) is formed by the action of light on tryptophan. FICZ activation of AhR regulates important biological pathways and increases expression of CYP1A1 as a feedback mechanism to induce its own metabolism (3).

AhR activation by FICZ reduces receptor for IgE (FcεRI) and upregulates IDO expression in Langerhans cells (4).



The IDO metabolic trap hypothesis for ME suggests that antigen-presenting cells are driven into a pathological state with increased cytosolic tryptophan. The following decrease in kynurenine products (including FICZ) may disturb the immune system homeostasis (5).

Several ME patients get better in the sun. Is it because sun-induced FICZ moderate the immune system?



References: 
1) Bernard, J.J., Gallo, R.L. & Krutmann, J. Photoimmunology: how ultraviolet radiation affects the immune system. Nat Rev Immunol 19, 688–701 (2019) doi:10.1038/s41577-019-0185-9

https://www.nature.com/articles/s41577-019-0185-9

2) Fritsche et al: Lightening up the UV response by identification of the arylhydrocarbon receptor as a cytoplasmatic target for ultraviolet B radiation. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2007 May 22;104(21):8851-6. Epub 2007 May 14. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17502624

3) Zhang, C., Creech, K.L., Zuercher, W.J. et al. Gram-scale synthesis of FICZ, a photoreactive endogenous ligand of the aryl hydrocarbon receptor. Sci Rep 9, 9982 (2019) doi:10.1038/s41598-019-46374-7 
 https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-019-46374-7

4) Koch et al: AhR mediates an anti-inflammatory feedback mechanism in human Langerhans cells involving FcεRI and IDO. Allergy. 2017 Nov;72(11):1686-1693. doi: 10.1111/all.13170. Epub 2017 May 10. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28376268

5) Efimov et el. The mechanism of substrate inhibition in human indoleamine 2,3 dioxygenase. J Am Chem Soc. 2012 Feb 15;134(6):3034-41. doi: 10.1021/ja208694g. Epub 2012 Feb 2. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22299628

onsdag den 30. oktober 2019

2-OGDO enzymer og jern redox status hos ME patienter

I de foregående tre blogindlæg har jeg redegjort for, at cellers jern redox status er vigtig for aktiviteten af en række enzymer.

Enzymgruppen 2-oxoglutarate dependent dioxygenaser (2-OGDO) anvender også jern i ferro form (Fe2+) som cofactor.

Jeg vil nu stille spørgsmålet: Er 2-OGDO enzym aktiviteterne i ME celler påvirket af en forstyrret jern redox ligevægt?

2-OGDO enzymerne katalyserer en lang række biologiske processer, herunder (1):
  • hydroxylering af kollagen
  • demethylering af histoner
  • første og sidste trin i dannelsen af carnitin
  • nedbrydning af fytinsyre (eng: phytanic acid)
Aktivering af 2-OGDO enzymer starter med binding af Fe2+, hvorefter ilt (dioxygen = O2) bindes til Fe2+. Dette stimulerer den oxidative decarboxylering af 2-oxoglutarate (=alfa-ketoglutarate) til succinate og CO2, og samtidig dannes oxiderede jern mellemprodukter (Fe3+/4+). Disse højvalente jern oxidanter kan hydroxylere et molekyle, dvs sætte en OH-gruppe på molekylet (1).

Ascorbat (c-vitamin) og glutathione kan reducere Fe3+ og Fe4+ tilbage til Fe2+, således at aktiviteten af 2-OGDO enzymerne genetableres. Bemærk at genetablering af ferro-tilstanden (Fe2+) også er det centrale i de tre forrige blogindlæg.

Citat fra reference 1: "It seems that the 2-OGDO enzymes are at the nexus of independent control between energy metabolism and availability of oxygen and iron in the regulation of cellular homeostasis."

Ydermere oplyser ref 1, at transferrin og transferrin receptor er nøgle-komponenter til regulering af jern ligevægten. Disse komponenter dukkede op i et ME genomic studie:

OMICS and iron metabolism in ME
http://followmeindenmark.blogspot.com/2019/10/omics-and-iron-metabolism-in-me.html


Dannelse af carnitin og ME sygdomsmekanismen

Carnitin er nødvendig for omsætning af fedtsyrer. Carnitin fås gennem kosten, og kroppen danner også selv carnitin. Carnitinen dannes gennem flere enzymatiske trin, hvor to trin katalyseres af 2-OGDO enzymerne: trimethyllysine hydroxylase (TMLH) og gamma-butyrobetaine hydroxylase (BBOX eller GBBH), hvor Fe2+ er cofactor (3).

Fedtsyreforbrændingen er påvirket hos ME patienter, og der er fundet lave plasma værdier af carnitin hos patienterne. Læs blogindlæg:

ME minder om medfødt metabolisk defekt
http://followmeindenmark.blogspot.com/2019/02/me-minder-om-medfdt-metabolisk-defekt.html

Plasma niveauet af alfa-ketoglutarate var forhøjet hos ME patienter i Germain et al's metabolisme studie (4). Hvordan hænger det hele sammen?

Referencer

1) Salminen et al: 2-Oxoglutarate-dependent dioxygenases are sensors of energy metabolism, oxygen availability, and iron homeostasis: potential role in the regulation of aging process Cell Mol Life Sci. 2015 Oct;72(20):3897-914. doi: 10.1007/s00018-015-1978-z. Epub 2015 Jun 29. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26118662

2) Loenarz and Schofield: Expanding chemical biology of 2-oxoglutarate oxygenases. Nat Chem Biol, 2008, 4, 3. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18277970

3) Carnitine biosynthesis https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carnitine_biosynthesis

4) Germain et al: Prospective Biomarkers from Plasma Metabolomics of Myalgic Encephalomyelitis/Chronic Fatigue Syndrome Implicate Redox Imbalance in Disease Symptomatology. Metabolites. 2018 Dec 6;8(4). pii: E90. doi: 10.3390/metabo8040090.https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/30563204

torsdag den 17. oktober 2019

REDOX og NO-sGC-cGMP-stivejen

Der findes en gammel hypotese om, at NO-sGC-cGMP-stivejen og hermed blodgennemstrømningen er påvirket hos ME patienter (1).

Nitrogenoxid (NO) er et gasformigt signalmolekyle, der har flere forskellige funktioner i kroppen. Soluble guanylate (eller guanylyl) cyclase (sGC) er receptor for NO. At den er soluble (opløselig) betyder, at den er intracellulær. På sGC molekylet findes et hæm-bindende område, der kan binde det gasformige molekyle NO. Hermed kan sGC producere guanosine 3’,5’-monophosphate (cGMP) fra guanosine triphosphate (GTP). Dette kaldes for NO-sGC-cGMP stivejen, som er relevant for kontrol af en lang række fysiologiske processer. F.eks. vil stimulation af sGC få glat muskulatur omkring blodkar til at slappe af. Der er udviklet lægemidler, der kan modulere sGC. De er målrettet tilstande, hvor dannelse af NO og NO tilgængelighed er mangelfuld (1).

På samme måde som hæmoglobin og IDO kan binde ilt via Fe2+ (læs to forrige blogindlæg), så kan sGC i ferro form sGC(Fe2+) binde NO. Når sGC bliver oxideret til sGC(Fe3+) kan NO ikke bindes.
  • Aktiv ferro soluble Guanylate Cyclase: sGC(Fe2+) kan binde NO
  • Inaktive ferri soluble Guanylate Cyclase: sGC sGC(Fe3+), kan IKKE binde NO

Celler i vaskulær glat muskulatur kan reducere den inaktive sGC(Fe3+) via cytochrome b5 reductase (CYB5B3), også kendt som methæmoglobin reductase. Hermed gendannes den NO-bindende sGC(Fe2+), se figur i reference 2 via link:

Schematic of Cyb5R3 regulating sGC heme redox state
Illustration shows Cyb5R3 sensitizes sGC to NO by reducing the sGC heme iron, controlling cGMP production and vessel relaxation.
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5527687/figure/F7/


Læs også:

Forhøjet methæmoglobin og "rod i redox" hos ME patienter
http://followmeindenmark.blogspot.com/2019/10/forhjet-methmoglobin-og-rod-i-redox-hos.html

REDOX status påvirker IDO enzym aktivitet
http://followmeindenmark.blogspot.com/2019/10/redox-status-pavirker-ido-enzym.html

Ergenor et al. NO-independent stimulators and activators of soluble guanylate cyclase: discovery and therapeutic potential. Nature Reviews. Drug Discovery. Vol 5, sept. 2006
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2225477/

Referencer

1) Blogindlæg af 24. marts 2016. Dysregulering af NO-sGC-cGMP-stivejen i ME/CFS http://followmeindenmark.blogspot.com/2016/03/dysregulering-af-no-sgc-cgmp-stivejen-i.html

2) Rahaman et al: Cytochrome b5 Reductase 3 Modulates Soluble Guanylate Cyclase Redox State and cGMP Signaling
Circ Res. 2017 Jul 7;121(2):137-148. doi: 10.1161/CIRCRESAHA.117.310705. Epub 2017 Jun 5.
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28584062

onsdag den 16. oktober 2019

REDOX status påvirker IDO enzym aktivitet

I forrige blogindlæg Forhøjet methæmoglobin og "rod i redox" hos ME patienter lærte vi, at hæmoglobin skal være i ferro (Fe2+) tilstand for at kunne binde ilt.

Enzymet indolamine-2,3-dioxygenase (IDO) binder ligeledes ilt via jern i ferro (Fe2+) form. IDO omsætter aminosyren tryptofan til N-formylkynurenine. IDO sætter to iltatomer (to ilt = di oxygen) ind i indolringen på plads nr. 2 og 3 i tryptofan (1):

Link til figur af den kemiske reaktion (1):
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3280726/figure/sch1/

Ligesom hæmoglobin kan auto-oxideres til methæmoglobin i ferri (Fe3+) form, kan IDO auto-oxidere til en inaktiv ferri (Fe3+) form (2):

  • Aktiv ferro indolamine-2,3-dioxygenase:: IDO(Fe2+), kan binde ilt
  • Inaktiv ferri indolamine-2,3-dioxygenase: IDO(Fe3+)


I forrige blogindlæg lærte vi, at cytochrome b5 kan give en elektron til methæmoglobin Hgb(Fe3+), så den aktive iltbindende hæmoglobin Hgb(Fe2+) gendannes.

Cytochrome b5 kan også anvendes til at give en elektron til IDO(Fe3+), således at den aktive IDO(Fe2+) gendannes (3).


Et hold forskere har vist, at ud over cytochrome b5 kan polysulfider eller thiol-molekylet 3-mercaptoindol også anvendes til at regenere IDO enzymet, citat fra reference 2:
"To bind molecular oxygen and activate tryptophan, IDO1 must be in the reduced ferrous state, where it returns in its catalytic cycle without the need for additional reducing equivalents. And yet, if no reductant is supplied during multiple turnovers, IDO1 undergoes abortive autoxidation with loss of superoxide to produce the inactive ferric enzyme. The ferric IDO1 produced in this manner persists even in the reducing environment of cells, suggesting that self-limiting autoxidation is an adaption to prevent excessive activity. Further highlighting the importance of redox regulation in tryptophan metabolism, inactive ferric IDO1 is also prone to long-term inactivation through heme-loss, which likely accounts for the majority of cellular IDO1 found in the apo-form. Regeneration and maintenance of active, ferrous IDO1 in cells has been attributed to cytochrome b5. We sought to explore and understand what other cellular reductants might affect the IDO1 redox switch and, by implication, the immune response. Our initial efforts were motivated by recent work describing the hydrogen sulfide-mediated reduction of myoglobin, hemoglobin, heme oxygenase, and porphyrin complexes. Hydrogen sulfide binds to the ferric heme of these proteins to form a hydrosulfido complex that can then lead to reduction to the ferrous heme and production of sulfhydryl radical, a paradigm matching the requirements for IDO1 activation in cells. The final oxidized products of these reactions, polysulfides, have also gained attention with the discovery of their high, micromolar concentrations within cells and their remarkably versatile reactivity, including ferric heme reduction in cytochrome c."


Hvis hypotesen om ME-IDO-metabolic-trap er sand, kan polysulfider eller 3-mercaptoindol så anvendes til behandling af ME?


Har ME patienter et generelt redox reduktions-potentiale problem?


Læs også:


The IDO Metabolic Trap Hypothesis for the Etiology of ME/CFS

Referencer

1) Efimov et el. The mechanism of substrate inhibition in human indoleamine 2,3 dioxygenase. J Am Chem Soc. 2012 Feb 15;134(6):3034-41. doi: 10.1021/ja208694g. Epub 2012 Feb 2.https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22299628

2) Nelp et el: Potent activation of indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase by polysulfides. J Am Chem Soc. 2019 Sep 25;141(38):15288-15300. doi: 10.1021/jacs.9b07338. Epub 2019 Sep 11. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/31436417
https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/jacs.9b07338
https://pubs.acs.org/doi/suppl/10.1021/jacs.9b07338/suppl_file/ja9b07338_si_001.pdf

3) Maghzai et al: Cytochrome b5, not superoxide anion radical, is a major reductant of indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase in human cells. J Biol Chem. 2008 May 2;283(18):12014-25. doi: 10.1074/jbc.M710266200. Epub 2008 Feb 25. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18299324

tirsdag den 15. oktober 2019

Forhøjet methæmoglobin og "rod i redox" hos ME patienter


Konklusionen på Germain et al (2018) metabolisme studiet var, at det er "rod i redox" (1):
"Our hypothesis is that a disturbance in the redox status influences the status of chemical reaction donors and acceptors as well as their coenzymes such as NAD+/NADH, FAD+/FADH for dehydrogenases. Oxidases would obviously also be affected as catalyzers of redox reactions."

Ordet redox er en sammentrækning af reduktion og oxidation. Det handler om at flytte elektroner mellem kemiske forbindelser.

NAD+/NADH er et eksempel på et redox-par:

  • NAD+ kan modtage en elektron
  • NADH kan donere en elektron


Jern (latin: Ferrum) bliver også anvendt til kroppens redox-processer:

  • Fe3+ er den trivalente jern-ion, også kaldet jern i ferri form (engelsk: ferric state). Fe3+ kan modtage en elektron.
  • Fe2+ er den divalente jern-ion, også kaldet jern i ferro form (engelsk: ferrous state). Fe2+ kan donere en elektron.


Jern redox enzymer katalyserer skiftet mellem ferri og ferro formen:

  • Ferrireduktaser reducerer Fe3+ til Fe2+
  • Ferrooxidaser oxiderer Fe2+ til Fe3+


Hæmoglobin transporterer ilt (også kaldet oxygen eller O2) rundt i kroppen. Hæmoglobin indeholder jern. For at hæmoglobin kan binde ilt, skal jern være i ferro form (Fe2+). Hæmoglobin auto-oxiderer meget langsomt (ca. 3% pr. dag) til methæmoglobin, som er hæmoglobin i ferri form (Fe3+). Methæmoglobin kan ikke binde ilt (2):

  • Hæmoglobin: Hgb(Fe2+), kan binde ilt
  • Methæmoglobin: Hgb(Fe3+), kan IKKE binde ilt


Hvis niveauet af methæmoglobin bliver for højt, bliver man træt og motionsintolerant, fordi der ikke bliver båret ilt nok rundt i kroppen.

Som kompensation for dannelse af methæmoglobin har kroppen et enzym cytochrome b5, som reducerer methæmoglobin til hæmoglobin. Dvs. cytochrome b5 giver en elektron til methæmoglobin (Fe3+), så der dannes hæmoglobin (Fe2+), som igen kan binde ilt.

Idet cytochrome b5 har en elektron at give bort, er den i ferro form, og kaldes også for ferrocytochrome b5. Når ferrocytochrome br har givet sin elektron bort, bliver den til ferricytochrome b5.

Ferricytochrome b5 skal nu "genoplades" med en ny elektron for at blive til ferrocytochrome  b5. Cytochrome b5 får sin elektron fra NADH (3):

NADH + H+ + 2 ferricytochrome b5 → NAD+ + 2 ferrocytochrome b5


Enzymet der reducerer ferricytochrome b5 til ferrocytochrome b5 hedder cytochrome b5 reduktase, også kaldet methæmoglobin reduktase.

Germain et al (2018) henviser til et ældre studie, hvor der er målt forhøjede niveauer af methæmoglobn hos ME patienter (1):
"Richards et al.found that methaemoglobin was one of the principal components that differentiated their ME/CFS patients and control cohorts. This hemoglobin carries the oxidized form of the iron ion, namely, the ferric state instead of the ferrous state necessary for the hemoglobin to bind oxygen. Even though methaemoglobin measurements are not part of our dataset, it is intriguing to relate its oxidation state to a disturbed redox environment while the effect of the inability to bind oxygen could translate into anoxia and asphyxia."


I Richards et al's studiet står der (4):
Methaemoglobin was found to be the major component associated with variation in symptom expression in CFS patients (R(2) = 0.99, P <0.00001), which included fatigue, musculoskeletal symptoms, pain and sleep disturbance.

Måling af methæmoglobin

Det er let at måle methæmoglobin. Man tager en blodprøve og sprøjter den direkte ind i blodgas apparatet ABL800 og to minutter senere har man resultatet. Ethvert hospital har et blodgas apparat.

ABL800:
https://www.radiometer.dk/da-dk/videnscenter/h%C3%A5ndb%C3%B8ger-og-apps/acute-care-testing-handbook/critical-parameters-in-acute-care-testing


Referencer

1) Germain et al: Prospective Biomarkers from Plasma Metabolomics of Myalgic Encephalomyelitis/Chronic Fatigue Syndrome Implicate Redox Imbalance in Disease Symptomatology. Metabolites. 2018 Dec 6;8(4). pii: E90. doi: 10.3390/metabo8040090.
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/30563204

2) Umbreit: Methemoglobin--it's not just blue: a concise review. Am J Hematol. 2007 Feb;82(2):134-44. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16986127

3) Wikipedia. Cytochrome b5 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cytochrome_b5

4) Blood parameters indicative of oxidative stress are associated with symptom expression in chronic fatigue syndrome. Richards RS, Roberts TK, McGregor NR, Dunstan RH, Butt HL
Redox Rep. 2000; 5(1):35-41.https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10905542

fredag den 4. oktober 2019

En ny biosensor viser, at SS-31 er et potentielt lægemiddel til ME

Dr. Ron Davis fra Standford Universitet og hans team har udviklet en nano-elektrisk biosensor (på engelsk populært kaldet "the nanoneedle"). Den kan vise om immunceller fra en blodprøve kommer fra ME patienter eller fra raske kontrolpersoner.

Immunceller fra både ME patienter og raske kontrolpersoner udsættes for salt-stress (også kaldet osmotisk stress) i biosensoren ved, at der tilsættes en natriumklorid-opløsning. Biosensoren måler et elektrisk signal (impedansen), som er et resultat af celleprocesser udløst af salt-stress.

Forskningen er beskrevet i denne artikel:
A nanoelectronics-blood-based diagnostic biomarker for myalgic encephalomyelitis/chronic fatigue syndrome (ME/CFS)
https://www.pnas.org/content/116/21/10250.long

Dr. Ron Davis forsøger nu at finde et lægemiddel, der kan normalisere ME-cellers respons på salt-stress. Han afprøver forskellige lægemidler ved at tilsætte dem til blod fra ME patienter i biosensoren.

To lægemidler får celler fra ME blodprøver til at opføre sig normalt i biosensoren. Disse resultater blev fremlagt på Havard Symposium 2019:

Dr. Ron Davis Presents on ME/CFS Research Activities at Stanford at Inaugural Harvard Symposium
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=02TUcGqTFAI&t=37s

Det ene lægemiddel er:  
Copaxone med indholdsstoffet hedder Glatirameracetate. Læs om det her: http://pro.medicin.dk/Medicin/Praeparater/2889

Det andet lægemiddel, som jeg synes er mest interessant, er:
SS-31, Szeto-Schiller Peptide 31, Elamipretide. Lægemidlet er endnu ikke godkendt, men der arbejdes med det på forsøgsbasis. Læs om det her: 

Mitochondrial dysfunction and oxidative stress in metabolic disorders - A step towards mitochondria based therapeutic strategies
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27836629

The Mitochondrial Antioxidant SS-31 Modulates Oxidative Stress, Endoplasmic Reticulum Stress, and Autophagy in Type 2 Diabetes
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/31466264

Improving mitochondrial function with SS-31 reverses age-related redox stress and improves exercise tolerance in aged mice
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/30597195

The mitochondrial antioxidant SS-31 increases SIRT1 levels and ameliorates inflammation, oxidative stress and leukocyte-endothelium interactions in type 2 diabetes
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/30367115

SS-31 Provides Neuroprotection by Reversing Mitochondrial Dysfunction after Traumatic Brain Injury
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/30224944

From the muscle hypothesis to a muscle solution?
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6437437/

Novel Mitochondria-Targeting Peptide in Heart Failure Treatment: A Randomized, Placebo-Controlled Trial of Elamipretide
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/29217757

Therapies for mitochondrial diseases and current clinical trials
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28943110

OMICS and iron metabolism in ME

Genomics in ME

Gene variants of TF, TFRC, and HPX have been identified as risk loci in ME patients (1):




Slide from: Whole Genome Sequencing and Analysis of ME/CFS
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nIJX-Q7w_Z4


Serotransferrin (usually just called transferrin), TF: iron-binding protein

Transferrin receptor, TFRC: plasma membrane protein that allows cellular uptake of iron-loaded transferrin

Hemopexin, HPX: a protein that binds free heme (or met-heme) and transport it to the liver for break-down and iron recovery.

Haptoglobin, HP: a protein that binds free hemoglobin and transport it to the liver for break-down and iron recovery.

Hemopexin and haptoglobin prevent heme toxicity.


Proteomics in ME

Serotransferrin precursor (gene: TF), number of unique peptides identified in the cerebrospinal fluid (table S1 in ref 2):
1) Controls: 105
2) ME patients: 141
3) Post treatment Lyme patients: 105

Transferrin variant fragment  (gene: TF), number of unique peptides identified in the cerebrospinal fluid (table S1 in ref 2):
1) Controls: 104
2) ME patients: 130
3) Post treatment Lyme patients: 99

Transferrin receptor protein 1 (gene: TFRC), number of unique peptides identified in the cerebrospinal fluid (table S1 in ref 2):
1) Controls: 1
2) ME patients: 2
3) Post treatment Lyme patients: 3

Haptoglobin precursor (gene: HP) , number of unique peptides identified in the cerebrospinal fluid (table S1 in ref 2).
1) Controls: 30
2) ME patients: 39
3) Post treatment Lyme patients: 34

Hemopexin precursor (gene: HPX) , number of unique peptides identified in the cerebrospinal fluid (table S1 in ref 2).
1) Controls: 61
2) ME patients: 197
3) Post treatment Lyme patients: 189

Another proteome study on cerebrospinal fluid from ME patients also showed increased levels of hemopexin and haptoglobin (3).


Metabolomics in ME

A metabolomic study on plasma from ME patients showed increased levels of heme (4).


Methemoglobin in ME

A study showed increased levels of methemoglobin in ME patients. Methemoglobin was found to be the major component associated with variation in symptom expression in ME patients (R(2) = 0.99, P <0.00001), which included fatigue, musculoskeletal symptoms, pain and sleep disturbance (5).

Activated macrophages produce an inducible NO synthase (iNOS or NOS2). This NO produced during inflammation and other oxygen reactive species results in conversion of hemoglobin to methemoglobin, and this consequently results in an increased rigidity of the red blood cell (RBC) with increased RBC lysis (6).  

Methemoglobin is an activator of endothelial cells by stimulation of IL-6, IL-8 and E-selectin (6).

Red blood cell deformability is diminished in ME patients (7).

Genomics, proteomics and transcriptomics show the iNOS pathway is upregulated in ME (8).


References:

1) Whole Genome Sequencing and Analysis of ME/CFS https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nIJX-Q7w_Z4

2) Schutzer et al: Distinct Cerebrospinal Fluid Proteomes Differentiate Post- Treatment Lyme Disease from Chronic Fatigue Syndrome. PLOS One February 2011, volume 6, Issuehttps://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0017287

3) Baraniuk et al: A Chronic Fatigue Syndrome - related proteome in human cerebrospinal fluid. BMC Neurol. 2005 Dec 1;5:22. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16321154

4) Germain et al: Prospective Biomarkers from Plasma Metabolomics of Myalgic Encephalomyelitis/Chronic Fatigue Syndrome Implicate Redox Imbalance in Disease Symptomatology. Metabolites. 2018 Dec 6;8(4). pii: E90. doi: 10.3390/metabo8040090.
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/30563204

5) Richards et al: Blood parameters indicative of oxidative stress are associated with symptom expression in chronic fatigue syndrome. Redox Rep. 2000;5(1):35-41. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10905542

6) Umbreit: Methemoglobin--it's not just blue: a concise review. Am J Hematol. 2007 Feb;82(2):134-44. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16986127

7) Saha et al: Red blood cell deformability is diminished in patients with Chronic Fatigue Syndrome. Clin Hemorheol Microcirc. 2019;71(1):113-116. doi: 10.3233/CH-180469. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/30594919

8) Genomics, proteomics and transcriptomics show the iNOS pathway is upregulated in ME. https://followmeindenmark.blogspot.com/2019/09/genomics-proteomics-and-transcriptomics.html

mandag den 9. september 2019

Genomics and the cytokine network in ME

Genomics in ME

Gene variants of IL12B, IL1B and IL4R have been identified as a risk loci in ME (1):

image.png

Slide from: Whole Genome Sequencing and Analysis of ME/CFS
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nIJX-Q7w_Z4


Cytokines in ME

Plasma cytokine levels have been measured in ME patients with short-duration illness (≤3 years) and ME patients with long-duration illness (>3 years) (2).

IL-12B (IL-12p40) was increased in short-duration and decreased in long-duration compared to normal controls.

IL-1β was decreased in long-duration compared to short-duration and normal controls (2).

IL4 was increased in short-duration and decreased in long-duration compared to normal controls (2).

Interferon-γ (IFNγ) was decreased in long-duration compared to short-duration and normal controls (2).


Cytokines and IDO1

IL-12B stimulate the production of IFNγ, and  IFNγ induce IDO1 activity (3).

IDO1 is inhibited by IL-4 (3).

Do the risk loci play a role in the ME-IDO-metabolic trap hypothesis?


Further reading:

Genomics, proteomics and transcriptomics show the iNOS pathway is upregulated in ME
http://followmeindenmark.blogspot.com/2019/09/genomics-proteomics-and-transcriptomics.html


References:

1) Whole Genome Sequencing and Analysis of ME/CFS https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nIJX-Q7w_Z4

2) Hornig et al: Distinct plasma immune signatures in ME/CFS are present early in the course of illness. Sci Adv. 2015 Feb;1(1). pii: e1400121.  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26079000

3) Opitz et al: Tryptophan degradation in autoimmune diseases. Cell Mol Life Sci. 2007 Oct;64(19-20):2542-63. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17611712

søndag den 1. september 2019

Genomics, proteomics and transcriptomics show the iNOS pathway is upregulated in ME

Activated macrophages produce an inducible NO synthase (iNOS or NOS2).  Although iNOS was originally identified and characterized in macrophages, it is present in numerous cell types including endothelial cells, fibroblasts, vascular smooth muscle cells and cardiac myocytes (1).


Genomics in ME

A gene variant of iNOS has been identified as a risk locus in ME (2):

image.png

Slide from. Whole Genome Sequencing and Analysis of ME/CFS
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nIJX-Q7w_Z4 



Proteomics in ME

The pathway "Production of NO and ROS in macrophages" was upregulated in the cerebrospinal fluid from ME patients (table S6 in ref 3).


Transcriptomics in ME

Functional Network Analysys of gene transcripts from ME immune cells showed thar the pathway "Production of NO and ROS in macrophages" was enriched (p-value = 0,000018) (4).


Macrophages and the ME-IDO-metabolic trap

The ME-IDO metabolic trap hypothesis tell us that the kynurenic pathway may be blocked in dendritic cells and macrophages. This means decreased metabolites from the pathway (5).

During inflammation and resolution of inflammation, this may be going on in normal cells (6) :
  • Increased IDO activity
  • Increased kynurenic acid (KYNA) production
  • Increased GPR35 activation (KYNA activates GPR35)
  • Decreased iNOS expression




Figure 2 from ref 6 Wirthgen et al (2018).


Is this what is going on in ME macrophages???:
  • Decreased IDO activity
  • Decreased KYNA production
  • Decreased GPR35 activation
  • Increased iNOS expression


References:

1) iNOS signaling: https://www.qiagen.com/us/shop/genes-and-pathways/pathway-details/?pwid=252

2) Whole Genome Sequencing and Analysis of ME/CFS https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nIJX-Q7w_Z4

3) Schutzer et al: Distinct Cerebrospinal Fluid Proteomes Differentiate Post- Treatment Lyme Disease from Chronic Fatigue Syndrome. PLOS One February 2011, volume 6, Issuehttps://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0017287

4) Sweetman et al: Changes in the transcriptome of circulating immune cells of a New Zealand cohort with myalgic encephalomyelitis/chronic fatigue syndrome. Sweetman et al: Int J Immunopathol Pharmacol. 2019 Jan-Dec;33:2058738418820402. doi: 10.1177/2058738418820402.
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/30791746

5) Kashi AA Davis RW and, Phair RD: The IDO Metabolic Trap Hypothesis for the Etiology of ME/CFS. Diagnostics (Basel). 2019 Jul 26;9(3). pii: E82. doi: 10.3390/diagnostics9030082. https://www.mdpi.com/2075-4418/9/3/82

Metabolic Traps in ME/CFS - Research Update by Dr. Robert Phair
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Quh-77gvw4Q

6) Wirthgen E Hoeflich A, Rebl A, Günther J.: Kynurenic Acid: The Janus-Faced Role of an Immunomodulatory Tryptophan Metabolite and Its Link to Pathological Conditions
Front Immunol. 2018 Jan 10;8:1957. doi: 10.3389/fimmu.2017.01957. eCollection 2017.
https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fimmu.2017.01957/full

søndag den 25. august 2019

Does OXA1L, MRM2 and MRRF protein activity compensate for complex V inefficiency in ME patient cells?

ATP synthesis by Complex V is less efficient in ME/CFS cells. The other mitochondrial complexes work harder to compensate (1).

Is this problem reflected in previous ME research?


OXA1L

Oxidase (cytochrome c) assembly 1-like (OXA1L) is a mitochondrial inner membrane protein. It is required for the insertion of integral membrane proteins into the mitochondrial inner membrane. Essential for the activity and assembly of cytochrome oxidase. Required for the correct biogenesis of complex V and complex I in mitochondria (2).

Knockdown of human Oxa1L impairs the biogenesis of complex V and NADH:ubiquinone oxidoreductase (3).

The C-terminal approximately 100-amino acid tail of Oxa1L (Oxa1L-CTT) binds to mitochondrial ribosomes and plays a role in the co-translational insertion of mitochondria-synthesized proteins into the inner membrane (4).

The gene OXA1L had changed DNA methylation profile and increased foldchange (2,01) in CD4+ T-cells from ME patients (5).


MRM2/FTSJ2

Mitochondrial rRNA methyltransferase 2 (also known as FTSJ2) is involved in mitoribosome assembly (6).

Defective MRM2 causes MELAS-like clinical syndrome (MELAS = mitochondrial encephalopathy, lactic acidosis and stroke-like episodes (7).

The gene MRM2 had changed DNA methylation profile and increased foldchange (2,12) in CD4+ T cells from ME patients (5).

The gene MRM2 was hypomethylated (3'UTR) in peripheral mononuclear cells (PBMC) from ME patients (8).


MRRF

Mitochondrial ribosome-recycling factor (MRRF) is responsible for the release of ribosomes from messenger RNA at the termination of protein biosynthesis. May increase the efficiency of translation by recycling ribosomes from one round of translation to another (2).

MRRF is essentiel for cell viability and depletion of MRRF leads to loss of mitochondrial complexes (9).

MRRF gene expresseion was increased in PBMC from ME patients (10, 11). 


Does OXA1L, MRM2 and MRRF protein activity compensate for complex V inefficiency in ME patient cells?



References

1) Missailidis, D.; Annesley, S.J.; Allan, C.Y.; Sanislav, O.; Lidbury, B.A.; Lewis, D.P.; Fisher, P.R. An isolated Complex V defect and dysregulated mitochondrial function in immortalized lymphocytes from ME/CFS patients. Submitted 2019.

Specific Mitochondrial Respiratory Defects & Compensatory Changes in ME/CFS Patient Cells
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SjK39QCPeeY


3) Stiburek et al. Knockdown of human Oxa1l impairs the biogenesis of F1Fo-ATP synthase and NADH:ubiquinone oxidoreductase. J Mol Biol. 2007 Nov 23;374(2):506-16. Epub 2007 Sep 20. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17936786

4) Hauge et al: Properties of the C-terminal tail of human mitochondrial inner membrane protein Oxa1L and its interactions with mammalian mitochondrial ribosomes. J Biol Chem. 2010 Sep 3;285(36):28353-62. doi: 10.1074/jbc.M110.148262. Epub 2010 Jul 2. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20601428

5) Brenu et al: Methylation profile of CD4+ T cells in CFS/ME. J. Clin Cell Immunol 5, 228https://www.omicsonline.org/open-access/methylation-profile-of-cd-t-cells-in-chronic-fatigue-syndromemyalgic-encephalomyelitis-2155-9899.1000228.php?aid=27598

6) Rorbach et al: MRM2 and MRM3 are involved in biogenesis of the large subunit of the mitochondrial ribosome. Mol Biol Cell, 2014, 25, 17.

7) Garone et al: Defective MRM2 causes MELAS-like clinical syndrome. Hum Mol Genet, 2017, 26, 21.

8) Trivedi et al: Identification of ME/CFS - associated DNA methylation patterns. Plos One 2018, 13, 7.

9) Rorbach et al: The human mitochondrial ribosome recycling factor is essential for cell viability. Nucleic Acids Research, 2008, 36, 18.

10) Kerr et al: Gene expression subtypes in patients with CFS/ME. JID, 2008, 197.

11) Frampton et al: Assessment of a 44 gene classifier for the evaluation of CFS from PBMC gene expression. Plos one, 2011, 6, 3.

torsdag den 22. august 2019

AMPD3 in ME

Adenosine monophosphate deaminase (AMPD) converts AMP to inosine monophosphate (IMP).

The AMP deaminase gene family:
AMPD1, muscle (m) isoform
AMPD2, liver (l) cells isoform
AMPD3, erothrocyte (e) isoform

The isoforms are named after their predominant location, but are also expressed in other tissue. Fx. AMPD3 is also expressed in muscles.

The purine nucleotide cycle of muscles consist of the conversion of AMP→IMP→AMP and requires AMP deaminase. Flux through this cycle increases during exercise.


Genomics in ME

A gene variant of AMPD3 has been identified as a risk locus in ME (1):

image.png

Slide from. Whole Genome Sequencing and Analysis of ME/CFS
The genes AMPD2 and AMPD3 were epigenetic changed in peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC) from ME patients in two studies (2, 3). Some of the DNA methylations in AMPD2 and AMPD3 were related to quality of life in the ME patients (3). AMPD2 and AMPD3 were differntially methylated in PBMC from ME patient subtypes (4).


Transcriptomics in ME

AMPD3 gene expression was downregulated in biopsies from the vastus lateralis muscle in ME patients (5).


Metabolomics in ME

Metabolic profiling of ME patients showed disturbances in purine metabolism (6, 7, 8). Fx, IMP was decreased in plasma from ME patients (8). 


HDAC3 and AMPD3

Depletion of histone deacetylase 3 (HDAC3) in skeletal muscle in mice causes lower glucose utilization and greater lipid oxidation. AMPD3 is involved in the regulation of the fuel switch (9).

Interestingly, very low density lipoprotein receptor (VLDLR) was found to be up-regulated in the ME muscle biopsies in ref 5. VLDLR is responsible for VLDL uptake into the fiber and is involved in the primary pathway of fatty acid transport in skeletal muscle (5). 

6-phosphofructo-2-kinase/fructose-2,6-biphosphatase 3 (PFKFB3) was down-regulated (5). PFKFB3 belongs to a family of bifunctional proteins that are involved in both the synthesis and degradation of fructose-2,6-bisphosphate, a regulatory molecule that controls glycolysis.

Transducin beta like 1 X-linked receptor 1 (TBL1XR1) was up-regulatede in women and down-regulted in men (5). TBL1XR1 is thought to be a component of both nuclear receptor corepressor (N-CoR) and HDAC3 complexes.

ME is associated with purine and histone deacetylation dysregulation (10). 


References:

1) Whole Genome Sequencing and Analysis of ME/CFS https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nIJX-Q7w_Z4

2) ) de Vega et al: Epigenetic modifications and glucocorticoid sensitivity in ME/CFS. BMC Medical Genomics, 2017, 10, 11 https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5324230/

3) Trivedi et al: Identification of ME/CFS - associated DNA methylation patterns. Plos One 2018, 13, 7 https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0201066

4) de Vega et al: Integration of DNA methylation & health scores identifies subtypes in ME/CFS. Epigenomics 2018, 10, 5 https://www.futuremedicine.com/doi/full/10.2217/epi-2017-015

5) Pietrangelo et al: Transcription profile analysis of vastus lateralis muscle from patients with chronic fatigue syndrome. Int J Immunopathol Pharmacol. 2009 Jul-Sep;22(3):795-807. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19822097

6) Naviaux RK, Naviaux JC, Li K, Bright AT, Alaynick WA, Wang L, Baxter A, Nathan N et al (2016) Metabolic features of chronic fatigue syndrome. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 113:E5472–E5480. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1607571113

7) Germain et al: Metabolic profiling of a ME/CFS discovery cohort reveals disturbances in fatty acid and lipid metabolism. Mol. BioSyst. 2017, 13, 371 https://pubs.rsc.org/en/Content/ArticleLanding/2017/MB/C6MB00600K#!divAbstract

8) Germain et al: Prospective Biomarkers from Plasma Metabolomics of Myalgic Encephalomyelitis/Chronic Fatigue Syndrome Implicate Redox Imbalance in Disease Symptomatology. Metabolites. 2018 Dec 6;8(4). pii: E90. doi: 10.3390/metabo8040090.
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/30563204

9) Hong et al: Dissociation of muscle insulin sensitivity from exercise endurance in mice by HDAC3 depletion. Nat Med. 2017 Feb;23(2):223-234. doi: 10.1038/nm.4245. Epub 2016 Dec 19. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27991918

10) Mcgregor et al: Post-Exertional Malaise Is Associated with Hypermetabolism, Hypoacetylation and Purine Metabolism Deregulation in ME/CFS Cases Diagnostics (Basel). 2019 Jul 4;9(3). pii: E70. doi: 10.3390/diagnostics9030070. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/31277442

fredag den 26. juli 2019

Complex V is down in ME - does it also explain Electromagnetic Hypersensitivity?

Complex V

Complex V (also known as ATP synthase or F0F1ATPase) is working less efficiently in cells from ME patients (1).


Chemical Intolerance and Electromagnetic Hypersensitivity in ME

ME patients have chemical intolerance (CI), also knowns as multiple chemical sensitivity (MCS). 

I have asked the question:
Complex V is down in ME - does it explain Chemical Intolerance?
http://followmeindenmark.blogspot.com/2019/07/complex-v-is-down-in-me-does-it-explain.html

Several ME patients also have electromagnetic hypersensitivity (EHS). It has been hypothesized that EHS and CI are two etiopathogenic aspects of a unique pathological disorder (2, 3).

Maybe ME, CI and EHS are a unique "Complex V-disease"?


Electromagnetic Fields and Complex V

Humans are exposed to electromagnetic fields (EMFs) from: Radio and television stations and receivers, radar, computers, Wi-Fi antennas, mobile phones, microwave ovens, and many devices used in medicine and industry. Our blood is just under the skin and is exposed to EMFs all the time.

Lassaivia et al have investigated peripheral blood lympho-monocytes exposed to EMFs at 1.8 GHz frequency and 200 V/m electric field strength. Respirometric measurements of mitochondrial activity in intact lympho-monocytes showed:
  • An in increase of the resting oxygen consumption rate after 20 h of exposure, which was coupled to a significant increase of the FoF1-ATP synthase-related oxygen consumption.
  • At lower time-intervals of EMFs exposure (i.e. 5 and 12 h) a large increase of the proton leak-related respiration was observed which, however, recovered at control levels after 20 h exposure.
  • No significant variations in the mitochondrial mass/morphology was observed in EMFs-exposed lympho-monocytes.
  • Altered redox homeostasis was shown in EMFs-exposed lympho-monocytes, which progressed differently in nucleated cellular subsets.

The results suggest the occurrence of adaptive mechanisms put in action, likely via redox signaling, to compensate for early impairments of the oxidative phosphorylation system caused by exposure to EMFs (4).


ME and Complex V

Fisher et al have investigated lymphoblasts from ME patients and found specific mitochondrial respiratory defects and compensatory changes (5).

Respirometry of immortalized ME patient lymphocytes (lymphoblasts) showed:
  • Mitochondrial ATP synthesis by Complex V is inefficient, representing a significantly lower proportion of the basal mitochondrial respiratory activity.
  • Absolute ATP synthesis rates (pmol/min) were not significantly lower than in control cells, while glycolysis rates and steady state ATP levels were unchanged.
  • There was a significant increases in maximum respiratory capacity, including Complex I activity.
  • “Nonmitochondrial” O2 consumption by other cellular enzymes was also elevated. 

The results suggest that ME/CFS cells compensate for the reduced efficiency of ATP synthesis by upregulating mitochondrial respiratory capacity.

The mitochondrial membrane “mass” and genome copy number were unchanged. Thus ME/CFS cells do not have “more” mitochondria, but their mitochondria have greater respiratory capacity. This increased capacity is underutilized because of the Complex V defect, so that the respiratory “spare capacity” was increased and the mitochondrial membrane potential was elevated (5).

I have a new question:
Can continous exposure from electromagnetic fields in the environment put further strain on a compromised complex V in ME patient cells?


A magnetic field is able to influence Complex V

Interestingly, a team of Japanese scientists have succeeded in attaching magnetic beads to the stalks of F1 -ATPase isolated in vitro, which rotated in presence of a rotating magnetic field. F1 -ATPase synthesized ATP from ADP and Pi when rotated in a clockwise direction at a rate of about 5 molecules per second. Additionally, ATP was hydrolyzed when the stalks were rotated in the counterclockwise direction or when they were not rotated at all (6, ref 26 in ref 7).


References

1) Missailidis, D.; Annesley, S.J.; Allan, C.Y.; Sanislav, O.; Lidbury, B.A.; Lewis, D.P.; Fisher, P.R. An isolated Complex V defect and dysregulated mitochondrial function in immortalized lymphocytes from ME/CFS patients. Submitted 2019.

Specific Mitochondrial Respiratory Defects & Compensatory Changes in ME/CFS Patient Cells
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SjK39QCPeeY

2) Belpomme D, Campagnac C, Irigaray P. : Reliable disease biomarkers characterizing and identifying electrohypersensitivity and multiple chemical sensitivity as two etiopathogenic aspects of a unique pathological disorder. Rev Environ Health. 2015;30(4):251-71. doi: 10.1515/reveh-2015-0027. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26613326

3) De Luca C, Thai JC, Raskovic D, Cesareo E, Caccamo D, Trukhanov A, Korkina L   Mediators Inflamm.: Metabolic and genetic screening of electromagnetic hypersensitive subjects as a feasible tool for diagnostics and intervention.  2014;2014:924184. doi: 10.1155/2014/924184. Epub 2014 Apr 9. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24812443

4) Lassaivia et al: Exposure to 1.8 GHz electromagnetic fields affects morphology, DNA-related Raman spectra and mitochondrial functions in human lympho-monocytes. PLOS ONE. February 20, 2018.https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0192894

5) International research symposiym: Mitochondrial function and signalling “Specific mitochondrial respiratory defects and compensatory changes in immortalized ME/CFS patient lymphocytes.” Speaker: Professor Paul Fisher, Latrobe University, VIC, Australia
https://emerge.org.au/wp-content/uploads/2019/03/2019-Symposium-Programme.pdf

6) Itoh et al: Mechanically driven ATP synthesis by F1-ATPase. Nature. 2004 Jan 29;427(6973):465-8. https://www.nature.com/articles/nature02212

7) Neupane et al: ATP Synthase: Structure, Function and Inhibition. De Gruyter 2019.
https://www.degruyter.com/view/j/bmc.2019.10.issue-1/bmc-2019-0001/bmc-2019-0001.xml

søndag den 21. juli 2019

Mitokondrie Complex V er dysreguleret hos ME patienter

I mitokondrierne bliver vores mad omsat til energi i form af ATP. Dette sker via citronsyre cyklus og de fem mitokondrie komplekser. Basis viden om dette kan læses i wikipedia. Her ses citronsyre cyklus og de fem komplekser:


Figur fra Wikipedia: Oxidative phosphorylation
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxidative_phosphorylation

I øverste venstre hjørne ses ATP synthase også kaldet complex V. Complex V sætter en fosfat-gruppe på ADP, så der dannes ATP. Complex V er yderligere beskrevet i Wikipedia: ATP synthase:  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ATP_synthase

Professor Paul Fisher fra La Trobe Universitet har anvendt Seahorse teknologi til at undersøge mitokondrier fra ME patienter. Han har vist, at ved belastning arbejder complex V ineffektivt. Når cellerne ikke er belastede kan ATP produktionen følge med, men ved belastning går det galt. Effekten af complex V er nedsat med cirka 25% - mere hos de mest syge og mindre hos de mere raske ME patienter.

Complex V dysreguleringen medfører, at de andre mitokondrie komplekser arbejder mere for at prøve at kompensere. 

Professor Paul Fisher har fremlagt sine forskningsresultater i en præsentation:

Conclusions from Paul Fisher's "Specific Mitochondrial Respiratory Defects & Compensatory Changes in ME/CFS Patient Cells":
  • ATP synthesis by Complex V is less efficient in ME/CFS cells
  • Nonmitochondrial O2 consumption (metabolism) and mitochondrial respiratory capacity are elevated in ME/CFS cells
  • Respiration abnormalities correlate with disease state
  • Proteins involved in transporting molecules across the mitochondrial membrane and in mitochondrial fatty acid oxidation are upregulated in ME/CFS cells
  • TOR Complex I activity is elevated in ME/CFS lymphoblasts and could be responsible for upregulation of mitochondrial proteins
  • ME/CFS cells may be less able to respond to additional acute energy demands because they have already "turned up" their capacity as much as possible
  • Cause-effect relationships need to be determined


Her er link til præsentationen:
Specific Mitochondrial Respiratory Defects & Compensatory Changes in ME/CFS Patient Cells

Bloggen Health Rising har skrevet om præsentationen:
Emerging Insights #II: “The Cellular Equivalent of Chronic Fatigue” Found in ME/CFS

Artikel af Daniel Missailidis, Sarah Annesley og Paul Fisher
Pathological Mechanisms Underlying Myalgic Encephalomyelitis/Chronic Fatigue Syndrome
https://www.preprints.org/manuscript/201907.0196/v1

Hvis du vil vide mere om ATP synthase (complex V), så er her er review fra 2019:
ATP Synthase: Structure, Function and Inhibition

torsdag den 18. juli 2019

Betydning af acetyl-grupper for ME sygdomsmekanismen

ME patienter har dysreguleret glykolyse. McGregor et al (1) mener, at denne dysregulering medfører:

  1. nedsat dannelse af acetyl-grupper
  2. histone deacetylering
  3. nedsat acetylering af enzymer


McGregor et al artikel:
Post-Exertional Malaise Is Associated with Hypermetabolism, Hypoacetylation and Purine Metabolism Deregulation in ME/CFS Cases

McGregor holder foredrag om forskningen: An Omic Analysis of ME/CFS – an Assessment of Potential Mechanisms:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UvGMbbyGtvg

Bloggen Health Rising har gennemgået forskningen:
Emerging Insights #1: McGregor’s Grand Conception of ME/CFS
https://www.healthrising.org/blog/2019/06/15/emerging-insights-mcgregor-metabolism-chronic-fatigue-glycolysis/


Nu følger lidt basisviden, om de begreber, der anvendes i artiklen/foredraget.

Acetyl-grupper

Acetat er saltet af eddikesyre. Den kemiske formel for acetat er  [CH3COO]−  og den kemiske formel for en acetyl-gruppe er   CH3CO,  Når en acetyl-gruppe sættes på en organisk forbindelse kaldes den en acetylering (engelsk: acetylation). Deacetylering er når acetyl-gruppen fjernes. Mange forskellige enzymer kan påsætte/fjerne acetyl-grupper i forskellige biokemiske sammenhænge.

Histoner

Histoner er de spoler, hvorpå vores DNA er oprullet. Tilgængeligheden af DNAet styres ved at påsætte/fjerne acetylgrupper.

HAT: Histone acetyltransferase sætter acetyl-grupper på histonerne
HDAC: Histone deacetylase fjerner acetyl-grupper fra histonerne

Læs om dette i wikipedia: Histone acetylation and deacetylation


Acetyl-CoA

Acetyl-CoA er et energi-rigt molekyle, som kan anvendes som brændstof i TCA-cyklus, men det anvendes også til at donere acetyl-grupper til histonerne. Acetyl-CoA dannes ved nedbrydning af pyruvat.

Her er link til en god figur, der viser anvendelsen af acetyl-CoA. Det er figur 3 fra reference 2.
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5934764/figure/embr201745432-fig-0003/

Det tyder på, at pyruvat dehydrogenase komplekset kan rykke ind i cellens kerne og producere acetyl-grupper til histonerne: Se figur 4 fra reference 2.
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5934764/figure/embr201745432-fig-0004/


Mere viden

Og hvis man vil forske i emnet, så er der fine metoder til det:
Integrated Analysis of Acetyl-CoA and Histone Modification via Mass Spectrometry to Investigate Metabolically Driven Acetylation

Ovenstående artikel har et let forståelig figur:


Referencer

1) Mcgregor et al: Post-Exertional Malaise Is Associated with Hypermetabolism, Hypoacetylation and Purine Metabolism Deregulation in ME/CFS Cases Diagnostics (Basel). 2019 Jul 4;9(3). pii: E70. doi: 10.3390/diagnostics9030070. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/31277442

2) Lisowski et al: Mitochondria and the dynamic control of stem cell homeostasis.
EMBO Rep. 2018 May;19(5). pii: e45432. doi: 10.15252/embr.201745432. Epub 2018 Apr 16.
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/29661859



torsdag den 11. juli 2019

ME/SEID hypotese: Formindsket regeneration af dihydrolipinsyre

Der er kommet en ny ME/SEID hypotese (1):

Hypotesen går ud på, at der er formindsket regeneration af dihydrolipinsyre (dihydrolipoic acid) til lipinsyre (lipoic acid).

For at forstå hypotesen til bunds er det nødvendigt med basisviden om lipoic acid. Jeg vil derfor gennemgå basisviden fra wikipedia og fra artiklen:

Lipoic acid metabolism and mitochondrial redox regulation (2).

Jeg benytter de engelske ord for de kemiske forbindelser, så de er lettere at genfinde i wikipedia og i artiklen.

Lipoic acid (LA) og 2-keto-acid dehydrogenase komplekserne

Lipoic acid (LA) bliver dannet ud fra caprylic acid (= octanoic acid). Octa betyder otte. Dvs. LA dannes af en fedtsyre, der har en kulstof kæde-længde på otte kulstof atomer (C). Fedtsyrekæden har fået sat et svovl atom på kulstof atom nr. 6 og 8. De to svovl atomer er bundet sammen i en disulfid-binding (-S-S-).


Lipoic acid.svg

Figur er fra Wikipedia: Lipoic acid

Disulfid-bindingen i lipoic acid leverer reduktionspotentiale til de tre 2-keto-acid dehydrogenase komplekser:

  • PDC, pyruvate dehydrogenase complex
  • OGDC, 2-oxo-glutarate dehydrogenase comples (2-oxo-glutarate = alpha-ketoglutarate)
  • BCKDC, branched-chain alpha-keto dehydrogenase complex

Disse enzym komplekser er ens opbygget af tre subunits:

  • E1: decarboxylase
  • E2: lipoyltransferase
  • E3: dihydrolipoamide dehydrogense

PDC subunits:
E1: PDHA1,  pyruvate dehydrogenase E1 alpha 1 subunit
E2: DLAT, dihydrolipoamide acetyltransferase
E3. DLD,  dihydrolipoamide dehydrogenase
Herudover findes der et E3 bindings-protein (E3BP), som binder E2 og E3 sammen. E3BP kaldes også for PDC component X og kodes af genet PDHX. 

OGDC subunits:
E1: OGDH,  oxoglutarate dehydrogenase
E2: DLST, dihydrolipoamide S-succinyltransferase
E3. DLD,  dihydrolipoamide dehydrogenase

BCKDC subunits:
E1: BCKDHA,  branched chain keto acid dehydrogenase E1 subunit alpha og
BCKDHB branched chain keto acid dehydrogenase E1 subunit beta
E2: DBT,  dihydrolipoamide branched chain transacylase E2
E3. DLD,  dihydrolipoamide dehydrogenase

Som man kan se, benytter de tre enzym komplekser sammen E3 subunit: DLD. Herudover findes der et glycine cleavage system (GCS), som også benytter DLD.

GCS består af:
AMT, aminomethyltransferase
GLDC, glycine decarboxylase
DLD,  dihydrolipoamide dehydrogenase
GCSH, glycine cleavage system protein H

Der findes endvidere et enzym 2-oxoadipate dehydrogenase (2-OADH), som også kaldes dehydrogenase E1 and transketolase domain containing 1 ((DHTKD1). DHTKD1 decarboxylerer 2-oxoadipate til glutaryl-CoA, som sidste trin i nedbrydning af lysine. Enzymet indgår også i omsætning af  tryptophan.

Mitochondrial 2-oxoglutarate-dehydrogenase-complex-like protein består af:
DHTKD1, dehydrogenase E1 and transketolase domain containing 1
og så mener man, at enzymkomplekset deler E2 og E3 subunit med OGDC (3).

2-ketoacid dehydrogenaserne og deres betydning for TCA cyklus er vist i figur 3 i reference 2:
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5961061/figure/F3/

Nu standser vi op et øjeblik og tænker! Hypotesen siger: "Impairment of the E3 subunit...". Hvis hypotesen er sand på dette punkt, kan der forventes en påvirkning af alle enzym komplekser, der anvender E3 subunit DLD.  Det vil jeg vende tilbage til. Vi skal først forstå lipoic acid's rolle til bunds. 

Dannelse af lipoylated E2 subunit

Når lipoic acid bygges sammen med et protein, f.eks. enzymet subunit E2, kaldes det en lipoylation. Proteinet er blevet lipoylated. Den biokemiske stivej, der sørger for dette er ikke 100% klarlagt, så man møder en del uafklarede spørgsmål i litteraturen.

Figur 1B i reference 2 viser bedste bud på lipoylation af E2 subunit, som man mener, at det foregår hos mennesker.

Først dannes en octanoyl-ACP. ACP kaldes også for NDUFAB1 (ikke vist på figuren). Og så følger de tre trin beskrevet i figuren, hvor tre enzymer benyttes:

LIPT2, lipoyl (octanoyl) transferase 2
LIAS,  lipoic acid synthetase
LIPT1,  lipoyltransferase 1

Structures, enzymes, and reaction mechanisms of lipoic acid metabolism (figur 1 fra reference 2).   https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5961061/figure/F1/

Jeg vil i det følgende gennemgå figuren, men først forklarer jeg dannelsen af octanoyl-ACP.

Dannelse af octanoyl-ACP

Octanoic acid er en organisk syre. En organisk syre er kendetegnet ved at have en -COOH gruppe. Når -OH gruppen fjernes fra en organisk syre, så opstår en acyl, som er et mellemprodukt til en videre biokemisk reaktion. Man benytter bogstaverne -oyl i nanvnet på den opståede acyl-gruppe.Enkelte af de kemiske forbindelser kaldes dog for -yl, som f.eks. formyl og acetyl.

Når octanoic acid får fjernet sin OH gruppe bliver den til en octanoyl. Dette octanoyl mellemprodukt bæres rundt i cellen af et acyl carrier protein (ACP). Det hedder en octanoyl-ACP. Octanoyl og ACP er bundet sammen via et svovl atom (-S-). 

LIPT2 - første trin i dannelse af lipoylated E2 subunit: Octanoyl-H-protein dannes

LIPT2 er genet for enzymet lipoyl (octanoyl) transferase 2. Transfer bedtyder overfører. LIPT2 overfører octanoyl fra octanoyl-ACP til et protein H under fraspaltning af ACP. Hermed dannes octanoyl-H protein. (Protein H anvendes også i GCS komplekset). Octanoyl og H protein er bundet sammen med en amid binding (-NH-). Dette er illustreret i første trin i figur 1B i reference 2.

LIAS - andet trin i dannelse af lipoylated E2 subunit: Lipoylated H-protein dannes

LIAS er genet for enzymet lipoic acid synthetase. LIAS sætter to svovl atomer (S) på octanoyl-H proteinet. Hermed dannes lipoylated H protein. Dvs et protein koblet sammen med lipoic acid. LIAS anvender svovl-atom donation fra et (4Fe-4S) cluster og reduktiv spaltning af S-adenosylmethionine (SAM) for at danne 5'deoxyadenosyl-5'radikaler, der kan fjerne hydrogenatomer (H) fra kulstof atom (C) nr 6 og nr 8 og i stedet indsætte svovatomer (S). Dette er illustreret i andet trin i figur 1B fra reference 2.

LIPT1 - tredie trin i dannelse af lipoylated E2 subunit: Lipoylated E2 subunit  dannes

LIPT1 er genet for enzymet lipoyltransferase 1. LIPT1 fjerner H protein fra octanoyl og sætter i stedet E2 subunit på. Hermed dannes lipoylated E2 subunit. Dette er illustreret i tredie trin i figur 1B fra reference 2.

Af reference 4 figur 1 fremgår det, at lipoylated E2 subunit kan dannes UDEN først at anvende et H-protein:


Fig 1. Lipoic acid biosynthesis.
mtFAS generates octanoyl-ACP, that enters the lipoic acid biosynthesis pathway. The octanoyl moiety is then transferred from ACP to H or E2 proteins. Subsequently, insertion of two sulfur atoms occurs on the octanoyl moiety to generate lipoylated H or E2 proteins. 2-KGDH, α-ketoglutarate dehydrogenase; 2-OADH, 2-oxoadipate dehydrogenase; ACP, acyl carrier protein; BCKDH, branched-chain ketoacid dehydrogenase; GCS, glycine cleavage system; LA, lipoic acid; LIAS, lipoic acid synthetase; LIPT1, lipoyl(octanoyl) transferase 1; LIPT2, lipoyl(octanoyl) transferase 2; mtFAS, mitochondrial fatty acidynthesis; PDH, pyruvate dehydrogenase.

Dihydrolipoamide

E3 subunit hedder "dihydrolipoamide dehydrogenase. Dihdro betyder to hydrogen (H). Det betyder, at svovlbindingen i lipoic acid er brudt, og der er sat en H på hver S. Amid er en -NH2, der er sat på C=O, dvs en amid er det neutrale derivat af en carboxylsyre. Hvis det ene H fjernes, så har vi en amid-bindingsgruppe -NH-, som kan kobles på en E2 subunit. E3 subunit fjerner to H, dvs den dehydrogenerer dihydrolipoamide. Heraf navnet dihyrolipoamide dehydrogense.



Dihydrolipoamide.svg

Figur fra Wikipedia: Dihydrolipoamide


Den subunit-bundne lipoic acid og dihydrolipoic acid og deres skifte mellem (-S-S-) og (-SH) gør, at cellen kan flytte rundt på elektroner og protoner (H+). 

Flere figurer kan findes her "Redox reactions involving thiols and disulfides":
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Organic_Chemistry/Book%3A_Organic_Chemistry_with_a_Biological_Emphasis_(Soderberg)/16%3A_Oxidation_and_reduction_reactions/16.12%3A_Redox_reactions_involving_thiols_and_disulfides


Det skal fremhæves, at artiklen  påpeger, at kosttilskud af lipoic acid (LA) ikke hjælper: "The lack of an independent salvage pathway in humans abrogates the use of LA supplementation as a therapeutic option" (2).



2-keto-acid dehydrogenase komplekser i funktion

Figur 2 i reference 2 viser hvordan de tre subunits fungerer i samspil:
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5961061/figure/F2/

E1 benytter cofaktoren thiamine pyrophosphate  (TPP) til at decarboxylere alpha-keto acid. Herved dannes en acyl-TPP.
E2 overfører acyl-gruppen til Coenzym A (CoA). Herved dannes en acyl-CoA og den E2 bundne lipoic acid (LA) bliver til dihydrolipoamide (DHLA).
E3: Lipoic acid har under processen i E2 modtaget to hydrogen og er blevet til dihydrolipoamide (DHLA). Der er en sving-arm mellem E2 og E3, der flytter DHLA molekylet fra E2 til E3, I E3 fjernes de to hydrogen atomer og DHLA bliver herved regeneret til LA. Svingarmen kommer tilbage til E2 med LA. E3 benytter FAD og NAD til regenerering af DHLA til LA.

E3 subunit's kapacitet til at regenerere oxideret lipoic acid kontrolleres af NAD+/NADH ratio i mitokondrierne. Når der mangler NAD+, oxideres FADH2 i E3 subunit, og der dannes frie radikaler, som inaktiverer alpha-keto acid komplekserne.

PDC og OGDC kan beskyttes mod oxidativt stress ved glutathionylation. Gluathionylation inaktiverer enzymkomplekset. Glutathione-modifikationen kan igen fjernes med glutathione reductase 2, som kodes af genet GLRX2. OGDC bliver også beskyttet af thioredoxin reductase 2, som kodes af genet TXNRD2.

Figur 4 i reference to viser "Regulation of OGDH by reversible glutathionylation":
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5961061/figure/F4/


ME/SEID hypotese sammenholdt med ME forskningen

ME forskning der viser påvirkning af PDC

Nedsat PDC funktion hos ME patienter er allerede sandsynliggjort i Fluge, Mella et al's studie (5).

Det øgede lactat niveau er foreneligt med nedsat PDC funktion. Øget lactat niveau hos ME patienter i forbindelse med motion er for nylig dokumenteret af Lien et al (6).

ME forskning der viser påvirkning af PDHX

PDHX gene promoter var hypomethyleret i peripheral blood mononuclear blood cells (PBMC) fra ME patienter (7).

PDHX genekspression i PBMC ændres ved motion (8). McGregor et al (9) henviser til reference 8 i deres tabel S1, hvor opmærksomheden henledes på, at PDHX er reguleret af histone deacetylaserne HDAC1 og HDAC2. Histone regulering er påvirket hos ME patienter i forbindelse med post exertional malaise (PEM) (9).


ME forskning der viser påvirkning af DLAT (E2 subnit i PDC)

Sirtuin 4 (SIRT4) er et enzym med flere funktioner. SIRT4 kan fungere som E2 subunit lipomidase og klippe lipoamiden af E2 subuniten, og hermed nedregulere PDC aktivitet. Citat fra reference 10: "We determine that SIRT4 enzymatically hydrolyzes the lipoamide cofactors from the E2 component dihydrolipoyllysine acetyltransferase (DLAT), diminishing PDH activity. We demonstrate SIRT4-mediated regulation of DLAT lipoyl levels and PDH activity in cells and in vivo, in mouse liver."

Figur 1 fra reference 10: SIRT4 interacts with the pyruvate dehydrogenase complex
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4344121/figure/F1/

Der blev fundet øget mRNA ekspression af SIRT4 i PBMC fra ME patienter (p = 0,013) (5).

Der er blevet påvist spor af DLAT i spinalvæske fra ME patienter, men man ikke fandt DLAT spor hos kontrol personer eller hos Lyme patienter (patienter behandlet for borrelia infektion):
DLAT precursor, number of unique peptides identified in cerebrospinal fluid (table S1 in ref 11):
1) Controls: ingen værdi
2) ME patients: 1
3) Post treatment Lyme patients: ingen værdi


ME forskning der viser/ikke viser(?) påvirkning af DLD (den fælles E3 subnit)

Hvis DLD ikke fungerer kan man forvente, at alle DLD afhængige enzym komplekser er påvirkede. En genetisk mutation kan være dødelig (12): "E3-deficiency is a rare autosomal recessive genetic disorder frequently presenting with a neonatal onset and premature death."

Man må formode, at en mindre påvirkning af DLD vil give en mindre grad af alvorlighed. Spørgsmålet er således. Er alle DLD afhængige enzymer påvirkede hos ME patienter? Vi kender ikke svaret, men vi må holde øje med, hvad forskningen viser os.

En hæmning af OGDH vil give forhøjet niveau af alpha-ketoglutarate og 2-hydroxyglutarate, jvf figur 3 i reference 2. Et studie har vist forhøjet plasma niveau af alpha-ketoglutarate hos ME patienter (p = 0,003) (13). Gen ekspression af enzymet D-2-hydroxyglutarate dehydrogenase (D2HGDH) var opreguleret i fuldblod fra teen-age CFS patienter (p = 0,0555) (14). Genet D2HGDH var hypomethyleret (body) i PBMC fra ME patienter (15).

ME patienter anvender forgrenede aminosyrer som brændstof (5), så det må formodes at BCKDC fungerer.

Subunit E2 fra BCKDC hedder dihydrolipoamide branched chain transacylase E2 (DBT), og kaldes også for dihydrolipoyllysine-residue (2-methylpropanoyl) transferase. Plasma niveauet af S-(2-methylpropanoyl)-dihydrolipoamide var formindsket i plasma fra ME patienter (16). Hvad betyder dette fund?

Hvis glycine cleavage system (GCS) ikke fungerer, kommer der en ophobning af glycine. Glycine niveauet er normalt hos ME patienter. I reference 5 har ME pateinter et lidt højere serum niveau af glycine, men det er ikke statistisk signifikant (p = 0,082).

Gen promotor for AMT (som er den del af GCS) var hypomethyleret i PBMC fra ME patienter (7). Hvorfor?


ME forskning der viser påvirkning af mitokondrie fedtsyrer syntese - octanoic acid

Som det fremgår af reference 2, så starter produktionen af E2 subunit helt fra bunden af med en fedtsyre med 8 kulstofatmer, octanoic acid, (C8:0).

To uafhængig studier har påvist formindsket plasma niveau af 2-octenoylcarnitine (C8:1) hos ME patienter. Dvs carnitninen er sat sammen med en otte-kædet fedtsyre med en dobbeltbinding (17, 18).  Naviaux et al (17) kommenterer resultatet således: "Octenoic acid is produced as an intermediate of mitochondrial fatty acid and lipoic acid synthesis. It is the substrate for mitochondrial enoyl thioester reductase (ETR), a family of enzymes that requires NADPH to reduce the double bond to octanoic acid, which is then used for lipoic acid synthesis. Decreased levels of this C8:1 acylcarnitine are consistent with decreased mitochondrial fatty acid synthesis, increased oxidation, increased renal secretion, or a combination of the three."


ME forskning der viser påvirkning af mitokondrie fedtsyrer syntese - ACSM1

Der er diskussion om acyl-CoA synthetase medium chain family member 1, ACSM1, påvirker lipoic acid syntesen (2). I reference 2 står der: "There has been a report identifying a mammalian lipoic acid-activating enzyme that could activate exogenous lipoic acid (36); however, this function was ultimately attributed to the mitochondrial medium-chain acyl-CoA synthetase (ACSM1) (37, 38). This enzyme can utilize both the (R)- and (S)-enantiomers of LA and primarily uses GTP to activate the natural (R)-lipoic acid, but so far there has been no substantial evidence to support that this enzyme functions in LA metabolism in vivo (36). "

Om det er relevant eller ej skal det nævnes, at genet ACSM1 (TSS200) er påvist hypomethyleret i PBMC fra ME patienter i to uafhængige studier (7, 15). Ydermere er forskellig methylering af ACSM1 relateret til ME patient subtypes (19).


ME forskning der viser påvirkning af mitokondrie fedtsyrer syntese - ACACA og ACSF3

Malonyl-CoA er nødvendig for fedtsyre syntese i mitokondrierne og hermed også nødvendig for dannelse af lipoic acid. Acetyl-CoA carboxylase alpha (ACACA) katalyserer omdannelse af acetyl-CoA til malonyl-CoA. Acyl-CoA synthetase family member 3 (ACSF3) kan også danne malonyl-CoA. En mitokondriel isoform af ACACA og ACSF3 sørger i fællesskab for, at der er nok malonyl-CoA til at danne lipoic acid (20).

DNA methylering af ACACA og ACSF3 i PBMC fra ME patienter:

ACACA hypermethylering: 5'UTR;body og body (15), og body (21)

ACACA hypomethylering: to steder i 5'UTR, og to steder i en genic location, der ikke er angivet (7)

ACSF3 hypermethylering: tre steder body (15)

ACSF3 hypomethylering: tre steder 5'UTR og TSS100 (7), og body;5'UTR (15)

Forskellig methylering af ACSF3 (body) var relateret til ME patient subtypes (19).


ME forskning der viser påvirkning af LIPT1

Nogle mutationer i LIPT1 forårsager manglende aktivitet af PDC og OGDC, mens GCS stadig fungerer (22, 23). Der er rapporteret om dødelig lactis acidose i forbindelse med LIPT1 mutationer (24).

LIPT1 var hypermethyleret med en foldchange = 5,9 og p = 0,03 i CD4+ T celler fra ME patienter (25).


ME forskning der viser påvirkning af thioredoxin reductase og glutaredoxin 

TXNDR1 var hypomethyleret med en negativ foldchange = -3,6 og p = 0,000165 i CD4+ T celler fra ME patietner (25).

GLRX2 var hypermetyleret (TSS1500) i PBMC fra ME patienter i to studier (15, 21).

Gen ekspression af GLRX var opreguleret i fuldblod fra teen-age CFS patienter (p = 0,0005), hvilket var den laveste p-værdi i studiet (14).

Hvad sker der med redox i cellerne hos ME patienter? Og hvad betyder det for 2-keto-acid dehydrogenaser? Er de blevet glutathionylated?

Figur med Glutaredoxin (a) and thioredoxin (b) systems:
https://www.nature.com/articles/4401818/figures/1

Mere viden: Thioredoxin and glutaredoxin-mediated redox regulation of ribonucleotide reductase

Videre inspiration

Tak til Victoria Bohne, Oeyvind Bohne og de personer, der donerede til illustration af deres artikel om ME/SEID hypotesen. 

Vi skal helt sikkert et spadestik dybere ned i hvad der foregår i pyruvat dehydrogenase komplekset. Videre læsning må være:

Structural and Functional Analyses of the Human PDH Complex Suggest a “Division-of-Labor” Mechanism by Local E1 and E3 Clusters


Highlights herfra:

Binding of CoA to E2 primes PDHc lipoyl arms for subsequent E2 and E3 reactions


Referencer: 

1) Victoria J. Berdikova Bohne og Oeyvind Bohne: Suggested Pathology of Systemic Exertion Intolerance Disease: Impairment of the E3 Subunit or Crossover of Swinging Arms of the E2 Subunit of the Pyruvate Dehydrogenase Complex Decreases Regeneration of Cofactor Dihydrolipoic Acid of the E2 Subunit 
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0306987718312994

2) Solomonson og DeBerardinis: Lipoic acid metabolism and mitochondrila redox regulation. J Biol Chem. 2018 May 18;293(20):7522-7530. doi: 10.1074/jbc.TM117.000259. Epub 2017 Nov 30.
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/29191830

3) Nimeria et al: The mitochondrial 2-oxoadipate and 2-oxoglutarate dehydrogenase complexes share their E2 and E3 components for their function and both generate reactive oxygen species Free Radic Biol Med. 2018 Feb 1;115:136-145. doi: 10.1016/j.freeradbiomed.2017.11.018. Epub 2017 Dec 1.
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/29191460

4) Bernadinelle et al: Mis-targeting of the mitochondrial protein LIPT2 leads to apoptotic cell death Plos One, june 9, 2017. https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0179591

5) Fluge et al: Metabolic profiling indicates impaired pyruvate dehydrogenase function in myalgic encephalopathy / chronic fatigue syndrome. JCI Insight. 2016; 1(21):e89376. Doi 10.1172/jci.insight.89276

6) Lien et al: Abnormal blood lactate accumulation during repeated exercise testing in myalgic encephalomyelitis/chronic fatigue syndrome Physiol Rep. 2019 Jun;7(11):e14138. doi: 10.14814/phy2.14138.  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/31161646

7) Trivedi et al: Identification of ME/CFS - associated DNA methylation patterns. Plos One 2018, 13, 7 https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0201066

8) Whistler et al: Exercise responsive genes measured in peripheral blood of women with chronic fatigue syndrome and matched control subjects BMC Physiol. 2005 Mar 24;5(1):5.

9) Mcgregor et al: Post-Exertional Malaise Is Associated with Hypermetabolism, Hypoacetylation and Purine Metabolism Deregulation in ME/CFS Cases Diagnostics (Basel). 2019 Jul 4;9(3). pii: E70. doi: 10.3390/diagnostics9030070. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/31277442

10) Mathias et al: Sirtuin 4 is a lipoamidase regulating pyruvate dehydrogenase complex activity. Cell. 2014 Dec 18;159(7):1615-25. doi: 10.1016/j.cell.2014.11.046. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25525879

11) Schutzer et al: Distinct Cerebrospinal Fluid Proteomes Differentiate Post- Treatment Lyme Disease from Chronic Fatigue Syndrome. PLOS One February 2011, volume 6, Issue https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0017287

12) Ambrus og Adam-Vizi: Human dihydrolipoamide dehydrogenase (E3) deficiency: Novel insights into the structural basis and molecular pathomechanism Neurochem Int. 2018 Jul;117:5-14. doi: 10.1016/j.neuint.2017.05.018. Epub 2017 Jun 2. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28579060

13) Germain et al: Prospective Biomarkers from Plasma Metabolomics of Myalgic Encephalomyelitis/Chronic Fatigue Syndrome Implicate Redox Imbalance in Disease Symptomatology. Metabolites. 2018 Dec 6;8(4). pii: E90. doi: 10.3390/metabo8040090.
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/30563204

14) Nguyen et al: Whole blood gene expression in adolescent CFS: an exploratory crosssectional study suggesting altered B cell differentiation and survival. J Transl Med. 2017,15,102. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28494812

15) de Vega et al: Epigenetic modifications and glucocorticoid sensitivity in ME/CFS. BMC Medical Genomics, 2017, 10, 11 https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5324230/

16) Germain et al: Metabolic profiling of a ME/CFS discovery cohort reveals disturbances in fatty acid and lipid metabolism. Mol. BioSyst. 2017, 13, 371 https://pubs.rsc.org/en/Content/ArticleLanding/2017/MB/C6MB00600K#!divAbstract

17) Naviaux RK, Naviaux JC, Li K, Bright AT, Alaynick WA, Wang L, Baxter A, Nathan N et al (2016) Metabolic features of chronic fatigue syndrome. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 113:E5472–E5480. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1607571113

18) Reuter and Evans: Long-chain acylcarnitine deficiency in patients with CFS. Potential involvement of altered carnitine palmitoyltransferase-I-activity. J. Int. Med. 2011, 270.

19) de Vega et al: Integration of DNA methylation & health scores identifies subtypes in ME/CFS. Epigenomics 2018, 10, 5 https://www.futuremedicine.com/doi/full/10.2217/epi-2017-015

20) Monteuuis et al. A conserved mammalian mitochondrial isoform of acetyl-CoA carboxylase ACC1 provides the malonyl-CoA essential for mitochondrial biogenesis in tandem with ACSF3. Biochem J. 2017 Nov 6;474(22):3783-3797. doi: 10.1042/BCJ20170416. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28986507

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